Empty Subject "IT"

We often use IT in some sentences referring to


TIME
THE WEATHER
TEMPERATURE
DISTANCE.

When used in this way, IT is called EMPTY because it carries no real information. IT is present since every English sentence has to contain a subject.



TIME: It is 9 pm.

WEATHER: It is hot.

TEMPERATURE: It is 37° Celsius.



DISTANCE: It is twenty miles from London.




Adapted from: Alexander, L.G. (1990) Longman English Grammar. p.78London:Longman.

Classification of Sentences

 According to the classification of sentences as to meaning or function, every sentence is either declarative, imperative, interrogative or exclamatory.

THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement (affirmative or negative):

The small wagon is overloaded.

He was not very optimistic about the elections.

THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

An imperative sentence is a sentence that voices a command or entreaty:

Do nothing about it.

Don´t overload the wagon.

THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question:

Have you finished your work?

What are you going to do about it?

THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that voices an exclamation, cry, or expression of strong feeling:

How silly!

They have done it!

According to their structure,sentences are classified into four different types: simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence and compound- complex sentence.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

The simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.

A simple sentence is not always a short, basic sentence , it could have a compound subject (i.e., a subject with two or more heads). For example:
Jack and Jill like walking.(This is a simple sentence with a compound subject made up of two heads ("Jack" and "Jill").)

A simple sentence could also have a compound predicate (when two or more finite/conjugated verbs share the same subject). For example:

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

The compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.

An independent clause (unlike a dependent clause) can stand alone as a sentence.

Joining the Independent Clauses in a Compound Sentence

In a compound sentence, the independent clauses are joined using one of the following methods:

• A coordinating conjunction with a comma (e.g., ", and")
• I like tea, and he likes coffee.

• A semicolon
• I like hot chocolate; it sends me to sleep.

• A colon
• I know one thing: I love that girl.
(This is rare because the words after a colon are not often an independent clause.)

• A dash
• I know you're here — I can smell your perfume.

• A conjunction with a semicolon (e.g., "; and")
• After the lights went out, I could hear you whispering; and I know you were talking about me.
(This is rare because it's an outdated style.)

Here is a short video explaining what we mean by compound sentence.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

The complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Examples of Complex Sentences

Below are examples of complex sentences. In each example, the independent clause is unshaded. The dependent clause is shaded.
Stay in the bath until the phone rings.
Both the cockroach and the bird would get along very well without us, although the cockroach would miss us most. (Joseph Wood Krutch, 1893-1970)
Leave while you can.

Subordinating Conjunctions in Complex Sentences

The word used to link an independent clause to a dependent clause is called a subordinating conjunction. The most common subordinating conjunctions are although, because, before, even though, if, since, until, and when.

In these examples of complex sentences, the subordinating conjunctions are shown in bold.


We can never obtain peace in the outer world until we make peace with ourselves. (Dalai Lama)
Even though he's a moron, I supported Tyson Fury. (Boxer David Haye)


Here is a short video explaining what we mean by complex sentence.

THE COMPOUND- COMPLEX SENTENCE

A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. For example:

• I stopped believing in Santa Claus when he asked for my autograph in a department store, but I still want to believe in him.

Adapted from https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/complex_sentence.htm#:~:text=A%20Compound%2DComplex%20Sentence.,want%20to%20believe%20in%20him.

Grammar Ranks: PHRASE- CLAUSE and SENTENCE

 

Because we shall speak not only of sentences but of phrases and clauses, let´s begin by defining these terms.

A phrase is a group of related words, without subject or predicate, used as a single part of speech. The following expressions are phrases:

• for Christmas
• to the river
• the new book

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate (with a finite /conjugated verb). The following are clauses:

• where he went
• that the snow was falling
• we went out early

Remember: a clause is distinguished from a phrase by having a subject and a predicate.

What´s a sentence?

A sentence is a grammatical unit made up of a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE (with a finite/conjugated verb). It is a unit of meaning that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

_________________________________________________

PHRASE CLASSES

The different word classes can form the basis of phrases. When they do this, they operate as the head of the phrase. So, a noun operates as the head of a noun phrase, a verb as the head of a verb phrase, and so on.

Heads of phrases (H) can have words before them (e.g. determiners (det), adjectives (adj), adverbs (adv)) or after them (e.g. postmodifiers (pm) or complements (c)):

(Source: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/gramatica/gramatica-britanica/word-classes-and-phrase-classes )

The head or nucleus is the most important element in the phrase.

The table 

The expensive car 

very quickly 

extremely cold

The head determines the type of phrase

Now watch the following video:

NOUN PHRASE

A noun operates as the head of a noun phrase.

Examples:

The clever children

The book about History

Heads of noun phrases (H) can have words before them (PRE MODIFIERS) or after them (POST MODIFIERS).

ADJECTIVAL PHRASE

An adjective operates as the head of an adjectival phrase.

Examples:

very tall

so confident

extremely cold

ADVERBIAL PHRASE

An adverb operates as the head of an adverbial phrase.

Examples:

very quickly

so slowly

VERB PHRASE

A verb operates as the head of a verb phrase.

Examples:

would study

made

did not go

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

The head is a preposition.

Examples:

on the table

under the desk

Apart from the head, they require an object to the preposition

TYPES OF CLAUSES

A clause may be classified as independent (main) or dependent (subordinate). 

An independent or main clause can stand alone as a sentence:

 e.g. "The telephone rang."

A dependent or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and make sense because it depends on the main clause.

e.g. "While I was taking a shower, the telephone rang.": while I was taking a shower" is a dependent clause.

We have prepared some videos for you. Watch them now, please:

1 - Meaning is primary!!! Learn about NOTIONS - Click HERE

2 - Words? Phrases? Clauses? What's what? Click HERE

Extra material: here are some videos that explain the topics we have discussed.

PHRASES VS CLAUSES

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/syntax-sentences-and-clauses/phrases-and-clauses/v/phrases-and-clauses-syntax-khan-academy

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/syntax-sentences-and-clauses/phrases-and-clauses/v/dependent-and-independent-clauses-syntax-khan-academy

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES (OPTIONAL ONLINE ACTIVITY).

Each sentence contains a clause in CAPITAL letters. Decide whether this clause is dependent or independent by clicking on the red button next to your choice.


http://depts.dyc.edu/learningcenter/owl/exercises/clauses_ex2.htm

Structural Hierarchy: the Grammar Ranks

  Texts are written or spoken following a certain structure so that readers or interlocutors can understand them. If we focus on written texts, they are divided into paragraphs. Every paragraph is made up of a number of sentences. Each sentence contains one or more clauses. Each clause is made up of different phrases. Each phrase consists of one or more words. Each word is made up of one or more morphemes. 

This structural hierarchy constitutes what Halliday (1961) calls the rank scale of Grammar. Within this rank scale, sentences and clauses comprise the highest structural units of syntax. Besides, each clause can be divided into subject and predicate.

Syntax from Scratch

In other subjects, you may be dealing with questions such as "What is language?", "What is culture?", and the like.


Here, we are going to deal with another aspect of language: syntax.


If you look it up in the dictionary, you will find definitions like:

syntax
noun [ U ]specialized 
the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence:
The examples should always illustrate correct syntax.
The president's tortured syntax was often satirized.
(https://dictionary.cambridge.org)



syntax: noun

[uncountable]
(linguistics) the way that words and phrases are put together to form sentences in a language; the rules of grammar for this

COMPARE morphology(https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/)



syntax
NOUN
UNCOUNTABLE
LINGUISTICS
the rules about how words are arranged and connected to make phrases and sentences(https://www.macmillandictionary.com/)

So we can say that syntax is that part of grammar which deals with the structure of the sentence.

When you study syntax, you will learn  how to classify words, how those words combine to make phrases and clauses, and how those phrases and clauses combine to make sentences.

Objective Complement

 

The Objective Complement

An objective/object complement is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that follows a direct object to rename it or state what it has become.

Verbs That Attract Object Complements

Verbs of making (e.g., "to make," "to create") or naming (e.g., "to name," "to call," "to elect") often attract an object complement. In the examples below, the object complements are shaded and the direct objects are in bold.

• To make her happy
• To name her Heidi

However, lots of verbs can take an object complement. For example:

• To consider someone stupid
• To paint something purple
• To catch somebody stealing

An object complement is not always one word. It could be a phrase. For example:

• I found the guard sleeping in the barn.
• We all consider her unworthy of the position.

And what kind of verbs take objective complements?

The verbs which take an objective complement are TRANSITIVE VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION.

INCOMPLETE PREDICATION refers to the fact that, without the objective complement, the idea is not complete. Look:

INCORRECT> I consider this movie. (What? - we need something else here).

CORRECT> I consider this movie boring.

Now watch the following videos and take notes:

Determiners

We use a number of words used in front of common nouns (or adjective + common noun) which we call determiners because they affect (or determine) the meaning of the noun.

Determiners make it clear, for example, which particular thing(s) we are referring to or how much of a substance we are talking about.

Singular countable nouns must normally have a determiner in front of them.

There are two classes:

1. Words which help us to classify or identify:

-indefinite article: I bought a new shirt yesterday.

-definite article: The shirt that I am wearing is new.

-demonstrative adjectives: I bought this shirt yesterday.

-possessive adjectives: Do you like my new shirt?

2. Words which enable us to indicate quantity:

-numbers: I bought two new shirts yesterday.

-quantifiers: There wasn´t much material in the shop.

What is the difference between adjectives and determiners?

• ADJECTIVE: It is an additional category.

• ADJECTIVES may be placed or not before a noun:

It is a sunny day.

The day is sunny.

• DETERMINERS: they are obligatory with singular countable nouns and precede a noun.

Jack bought a (new) shirt.

*Jack bought (new) shirt.

• DETERMINERS CAN BE USED AS PRONOUNS:

We understood her explanation but not his explanation.

We understood her explanation but not his.

The shirt is new

A new shirt

The shirt 

*Shirt the (ungrammatical)

In addition, if there is one – or up to three – determiner(s) together with one or more adjectives preceding a noun, determiners always precede the adjectives.

I read those three interesting postmodern novels.

*I read interesting postmodern those three novels.

Classification

Determiners are classified into three big groups according to their relative position:

Adapted from Durán (2017). An Introductory Course in English Grammar. Chapter 13.

The Sentence: Subject and Predicate

 THE SENTENCE

• A sentence is a grammatical unit made up of a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE (with a finite/conjugated verb). 
• It is a unit of meaning that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

SENTENCE ELEMENTS: SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Every sentence may be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate. 

E.g. The man lost his brown suitcase yesterday.

The subject 

• It consists of the word or words about which something is said by the predicate.

• The subject tells who or what the sentence is about, often who or what does something.

• The subject most often appears near the beginning of the sentence, but it can appear later: Taking too long to decide, she missed her chance. (She is the subject of the sentence).

The predicate

The predicate is the word or words which express what is said about the subject, and consists of the verb, together with such words as may be needed to complete its meaning. 

The sun rises.

CATEGORIES FUNCTIONING AS SUBJECT

• A NOUN/NOUN PHRASE:

The car is white.
John studies English.

• A PRONOUN:

He is tall.
Someone is singing. (SOMEONE=INDEFINITE PRONOUN)

This is a great idea.

• A GERUND:

Smoking is bad for your lungs.

• AN INFINITIVE:

To smoke cigarettes is very bad.

• A NOUN CLAUSE:

What he said is right.

Now watch the following video and take down notes:

Homework: identify the subject in each sentence.

1. My first trip to Istanbul was two years ago.
2. A friend and I went there in the summer.
3. The best hotels were all booked.
4. Fortunately, we found a comfortable hotel in the center.
5. Our ten vacation days went by very fast.
6. Both of us want to go back soon.